Miss Nikarimah Pangoh

NPM:  116224007

1.      Jonathan Z. Smith (pdf)

Ritual is a means of performing the way things ought to be in such a way that this ritualized perfection is recollected in the ordinary, uncontrolled, course of things.

2.      Sigma-chi-ritual-2002.pdf

Ritual is part of the law of the fraternity. The ritual has equal forcew and validity in all respects with the constitution of the fraternity.

3.      Ritual_its importance and meaning by W.Bro.ViktorG. Popow

Ritual takes many form. It may consist of siple routines which an indvidual submis to on a daily basis or it may be of more complex ceremony as in marriage, graduation, from a civil or military or a rite of passage from a boy to manhood.

4.      Ritual Performance and the Politics of Identity

Jan Koster

University of Groningen

Ritual is intrisically interesting as a rich area of human self-expression

5.      Lauri Honko (pdf)

Ritual is traditional, prescribed communication with the sacred.

6.      What is civilization.pdf

Civilization is the state of condition of person living and functioning together, jontly, cooperatively so that they produce and experience the benefits of so living and functioning and cooperatively.

7.      Culture, civilization, and human society (6-23.pdf)

Herbert Arit

Sciwentific Director, INST, Vienna, Austria

Civilizations are special forms of cultural organizations. Societies are social forms enabling people to live together. 

8.      Huntington_clash.pdf

The clash of civilizations

Samuel P. Huntington

Civilization is a cultural entity, villages, regions, ethnic groups, nationalities, religious group, all have distinct cultures at different levels of cultural heteroginity.

9.      BBA Culture and Civilizaton.pdf

Culture and civilization by Arun. K

Elements of civilizations:

•     Urban society
•     Religion
•     Literature
•     Gove
•     Specialization
•     Social class
•     Tool making
•     Once part of time
•     Leisure

10.  Toward a Muslm Constructive Role in The Contemporary world civilization

Dr. Fathi Osman

Civilization means the comprehensive development of the human potential n all its dimension : physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral and psychological.

11.  The European Union and the member states. Eleaner E. Zeff and Elen b. Pirro.2006.

Lynne Riener Publishers. USA (page 2)

The ever widere union

1958:   Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands

1973:   Britain, Denmark, Ireland

1981:   Greece

1986:   Spain, Portugal

1995:   Austria, Finland, Sweden

2004: Czech Republic, Cyprus, Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia.

12.  Cities are key to the sustainable development of the European Union (pdf)

•      Europe is one of the most urbanised continents in the world.
•    Today, more than two thirds of the European population lives in urban areas and this share continues to grow. The development of our cities will determine the future economic, social and territorial development of the European Union.

13.  The European model of sustainable urban development is under threat (pdf)

•     Demographic change gives rise to a series of challenges that differ from one city to another, such as ageing populations, shrinking cities or intense processes of suburbanisation.
•     Europe is no longer in a situation of continuous economic growth and many cities, especially non-capital cities in Central and Eastern Europe, but also old industrial cities in Western Europe, face the serious threat of economic stagnation or decline.
•      There are opportunities to turn the threats into positive challenges
•      European cities follow different development trajectories and their diversity has to be exploited. Competitiveness in the global economy has to be combined with sustainable local economies by anchoring key competences and resources in the local economic tissue and supporting social participation and innovation.

14.  05-drama.pdf

English language litertaure. Prof. Daniel Derrel Santeew.2010

Drama in England started with the medieval church, priests, wishing to make the bible vivid to unlearned people, themselves performed very simple dramatic versions of stories for the Bible in their chorches.

Shakespeare for Student

The Characters of Shakespeare

15.  1v471DVO.pdf

Shakespeare’s plays are filled with an impressive variety of characters from king and queens to maids and messengers to ghost and fairies while most of Shakespeare’s plays were inspired by existing tales.

16.  English Drama.pdf

Shakespeare is remarkable in that he produced all three types. His 38 plays nclude tragedies such as Hamlet (1603), Othello (1604), and King Lear (1605) : comedies such as A Mid Summer Night’s Dream (1594-96) and Twewlfith night (1602) and history plays such as Henry IV (part1-2).

Rizki Imam Asnawi

1.       Ritual_its importance and meaning by W.Bro.ViktorG. Popow

Ritual takes many form. It may consist of siple routines which an indvidual submis to on a daily basis or it may be of more complex ceremony as in marriage, graduation, from a civil or military or a rite of passage from a boy to manhood

2.       Ritual Performance and the Politics of Identity

Jan Koster

University of Groningen

Ritual is intrisically interesting as a rich area of human self-expression

3.       Sigma-chi-ritual-2002.pdf

Ritual is part of the law of the fraternity. The ritual has equal forcew and validity in all respects with the constitution of the fraternity

4.       Toward a Muslm Constructive Role in The Contemporary world civilization

Dr. Fathi Osman

Civilization means the comprehensive development of the human potential n all its dimension : physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral and psychological.

5.       What is civilization.pdf

Civilizatio is the state of condition of person living and functioning together, jontly, cooperatively so that they produce and experience the benefits of so living and functioning and cooperatively.

6.       Culture, civilization, and human society (e6-23.pdf)

Herbert Arit

Sciwentific Director, INST, Vienna, Austria

Civilizations are special forms of cultural organizations. Societies are social forms enabling people to live together.

7.       BBA Culture and Civilizaton.pdf

Culture and civilization by Arun. K

Elements of civilizatios :

-          Urban society

-          Relgion

-          Literature

-          Gove

-          Specializaton

-          Social class

-          Tool makng

-          Once part of time

-          Leisure

8.       Huntington_clash.pdf

The clash of civilizatios

Samuel P. Huntington

Civiization is a cultural entity, villages, regions, ethnic groups, nationalities, religious group, all have distinct cultures at different levels of cultural heteroginity

9.       The European Union and the member states. Eleaner E. Zeff and Elen b. Pirro.2006. Lynne Riener Publishers. USA (page 2)

The ever widere union

1958 : belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands

1973 : Britain, Denmark, Ireland

1981 : Greece

1986 : Spain, Portugal

1995 : Austria, Finland, Sweden

2004 : Czech Republic, Cyprus, Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia

10.   05-drama.pdf

English language litertaure. Prof. Daniel Derrel Santeew.2010

Drama in England started with the medieval church, priests, wishing to make the bble vivid to unlearned people, themselves perfomed very simple dramatic versions of stories fro the Bible in their chorches.

11.   Shakespeare for Student

The Characters of Shakespeare

1v471DVO.pdf

 Shakespeare’s plays are filled with an impressive variety of characters from king and queens to maids and messengers to ghost and fairies while most of shakespeare’s plays were inspired by existing tales.

12.   English Drama.pdf

Shakespeare is remarkable in that he peoduced all three types. His 38 plays nclude tragedies such as Hamlet (1603), Othello (1604), and King Lear (1605) : comedies such as A Mid Summer Night’s Dream (1594-96) and twewlfith night (1602) and history plays such as Henry IV (part 1-2)

Miss Ae-Soh Raheem

RITUAL ASPECT IN SHAKESPEARE’S DRAMAS

IS RELATED TO

EUROPEN CIVILIZATION

MISS AE-SOH RAHEEM

116224006

ENGLISH LITERATURE

UNIVERSITY MUSLIM NUSANTARA

AL-WASHLIYAH

MEDAN 2014

RITUAL

-download.cabledrum.net/.../file/sigma-chi-ritual-2002.pdf

-Ritualistic Statutes

1.      The Ritual, the most sacred possession of the Fraternity, is entrusted to the care and safe-keeping of the Consul, and he is directed to keep and guard it zealously.

2.      Attendance at all regular meetings of the Chapter is obligatory. The Consul shall enforce this rule, and see that all active men observe this requirement.

3.      All persons present who are not generally believed to be members of Sigma Chi should be challenged by the Consul before the opening of a regular Chapter meeting.

4.      Unless excused for a good cause bay vote of the chapter, no one shall hold office until he shall have recited the duties of his office in the presence of the chapter.

5.      The Grand Tibune or  Grand Praetor of the Province  may at any time call a special meeting of the Chapter for the purpose of testing its proficiency in the required work of the Ritual and constitution.

CIVILIZATION

www.usc.edu/.../Toward_a_Muslim_Constructive_Role_in

Toward a Muslim Constructive Role

In the Contemporary World Civilization

Dr. Fathi Osman*

1.      Muslim Civilization

Muslim civilization is characterized with certain moral values which are accepted and supported universally by humanity at large, and which are considered by Muslims and other believers in God to be divine commandments that ought to be respected and followed by such believers.

2.      Civilization

Without going through the variety of concepts and terminologies on the subject, civilization simply means: the comprehensive development of the human potential in all its dimensions: physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral and psychological.

3.      Islam as a Civilization Message:

Islam aims at developing the human potential, as well as the natural resources necessary to realize this potential, through the motivation of faith in God and accountability of the human being: “It is He who has produced you from the earth and entrusted you with development on it”.

4.      Towards a Muslim Constructive Role in the Contemporary Civilization:

A Muslim impact on the contemporary global civilization can only be reached through constructive engagement and effective participation in it. Wishful dreaming for its end so that another civilization will rise in its place is not a practical matter.

5.      “…the problem of developing an anthropology which is not the science of the human animal, but the science of the whole human being, including all his/her spiritual values, studied from individual and social points of view in the same time”.

SHAKESPEARE’S DRAMA

1.      This "Small Print!" by Charles B. Kramer, Attorney

davidlucking.com/documents/Shakespeare-Complete%20Works.pdf

THE SONNETS

by William Shakespeare

-          From fairest creatures we desire increase,

That thereby beauty's rose might never die,

But as the riper should by time decease,

His tender heir might bear his memory:

But thou contracted to thine own bright eyes,

Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel,

Making a famine where abundance lies,

Thy self thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel:

Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament,

And only herald to the gaudy spring,

Within thine own bud buriest thy content,

And tender churl mak'st waste in niggarding:

Pity the world, or else this glutton be,

To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.

2.      The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)

by adam long, daniel singer and jess winfield

      Study Guide The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)

By Alison Howard © 2011

www.qpac.com.au/.../Works_Shakespeare_13_Study_Guid..

-          Good friend, for Jesus’ sake forbeare

To dig the dust enclosed here.

Blessed be the man that spares these stones,

And cursed be he that moves my bones.

3.      Shakespeare’s Conception of Tragedy:

The Middle Tragedies＊

Jay L. HALIO

Professor Emeritus of English, University of Delaware

-          For this same lord

I do repent, but heaven hath pleased it so,

To punish me with this, and this with me,

That I must be their scourge and minister.

4.      I’ll see before I doubt; when I doubt, prove;

And on the proof, there is no more but this:

Away at once with love or jealousy.

5.      Drunk asleep, or in his rage,

Or in th’incestuous pleasure of his bed;

At gaming, a-swearing, or about some act

That has no relish of salvation in’t;

Then trip him, that his heels may kick at heaven,

And that his soul may be as damn’d and black

As hell, whereto it goes.

EUROPEAN

The ABC of European Union law

by Professor Klaus-Dieter Borchardt

europa.eu/documentation/legislation/pdf/oa8107147

-          Fundamental values of the European Union;

1.      The Union’s aim is to promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples.

2.      The Union shall offer its citizens an area of freedom, security and justice without internal frontiers, in which the free movement of persons  is ensured in conjunction with appropriate measures with respect to external border controls, asylum, immigration and the prevention and combating of crime.

3.      The Union shall establish an internal market. It shall work for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy, aiming at full employment and social progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment. It shall promote scientific and technological advance. It shall combat social exclusion and discrimination, and shall promote social justice and protection, equality between women and men, solidarity between generations and protection of the rights of the child. It shall promote economic, social and territorial cohesion, and solidarity among Member States. It shall respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity, and shall ensure that Europe’s cultural heritage is safeguarded and enhanced.

4.      The Union shall establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is the euro.

5.      In its relations with the wider world, the Union shall uphold and promote its values and interests and contribute to the protection of its citizens. It shall contribute to peace, security, the sustainable development of the Earth, solidarity and mutual respect among peoples, free and fair trade, eradication of poverty and the protection of human rights, in particular the rights of the child, as well as to the strict observance and the development of international law, including respect for the principles of the United Nations Charter.

Ade Irma Widiyawati Harahap

LITERARY CRITISM ASSIGNMENT

RITUAL ASPECT IN SHAKSPEARS DRAMA IS RELATED TO EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION

C

O

M

P

I

L

E

D

 BY:

ADE IRMA WIDIYAWATI HARAHAP

116224003

FACULTY OF LETTER

UNIVERSITY OF MUSLIM NUSANTARA

AL - WASHLIYAH

MEDAN

2014

RITUAL ASPECT 

“THE RITUAL is part of the Law of the Fraternity. The Ritual has equal force and validity in all respects with the Constitution of the Fraternity. The matter contained in the Constitution, however, is not secret in character while that contained in the Ritual is inviolably secret, except the special services as therein specified. The further laws of the Fraternity applying to the Ritual and Ritualistic Statutes, including their force and validity, their safekeeping, their secrecy, and the methods of their amendment, are in the Governing Laws of the Fraternity. Although the Ritual and Ritualistic Statutes are closely related parts of our Governing Laws, each is a separate entity. Each has its own procedure for amendment. Material from the two documents is integrated throughout this book but is clearly identified as Ritual or Ritualistic Statutes. Ritualistic Statutes material is in small type and enclosed in borders. Ritual material is on the pages with larger type and is not enclosed in borders.” (Ritualistic Statutes, page 5 :pdf )

In recent years there has been a growing interest in ritual theory, which has also become a focal point in the study of religion. As long as texts and discourse are taken as the majorsource or primary model for inquiring into religious traditions, the field of religious studies willbe limited to such issues as representation and meaning. Consequently, scholars of religiontend to overlook the potential that recent approaches in ritual theory, and their relatedconcepts, have for their field of research. The theoretical issues that these approaches havedeveloped are crucial for the study of religion, so much so that one is justified in claiming that rituals have to be theorized on their own terms if they are to be studied seriously. If one accepts this claim, one will need to refine one's grasp of the relation between ritual and religion and reconsider the role that the study of ritual plays in the study of religion. Doing so would not only place in question the assumption that meaning and representation can be taken as the major frames of reference for studying religious traditions, but would also imply the need for a radical shift of attention towards the analysis of the actual performance of ritual actions. “To study rituals on their own terms would mean to study them first and foremost independently of the meanings attached to them by religious texts or discourse, uncovering how they work in and of themselves. This would obviously mean that rituals cannot be related primarily or exclusively to religion, insofar as religion is considered a system of symbols or a web (or texture) of meaning critique that came to the fore in the mid-1970s, when common concepts of ritual were scrutinized and when first attempts for some currently prominent theoretical approaches to ritual were proposed.” (Page 103, Pdf).“A point of departure for raising critical issues concerning ritual theory is Clifford Geertz's programmatic article "Religion as a Cultural System." This article established a new framework in the study of ritual and led to a paradigm shift in religious studies by attempting to take the anthropological approach in the study of ritual to be primary to the study of religious texts and discourse. Geertz introduced his approach by defining religion as a system of symbols and identifying ritual with religion.” (Page 27, Pdf) According to him, the sense of the 'really real', which is the essence of religion, originates in ritual because "the world as lived and the world as imagined, [are] fused under the agency of a single set of symbolic forms". For Geertz, ritual generates religion because it is capable of embodying the system of symbols and combining the model of and the model for reality in such a way that it "acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence." “As fruitful as this approach to ritual may have been for the study of religion, it is problematic in that it presupposes a concept of symbol that misconceives the analysis of ritual performances—as long as it is grasped as a category that can only determine the type of unit that "serves as a vehicle for a conception." If one takes this approach seriously, one would end up analyzing the conceptions or models of reality as embodied in, or exemplified by, rituals without analyzing the rituals themselves.” (Page 14, Pdf). This concept of symbol even leads Geertz to conceive of culture as a text. This implies that any form of ritual action can be seen as a kind of religious behavior, which is approached through the lens of a broad linguistic model. Geertz introduces such notions as the emic and etic perspectives, or the model of and model for reality, in order to refine the possibility of grasping the actor's point of view. However, despite this, he is unable to analyze rituals on their own terms, because he systematically relates the rituals back to religious conceptions that he takes to be the representation or meaning of ritual symbols. In doing so, Geertz understands ritual a mode of communicative behavior that functions to ascertain religious moods and motivations, rather than a form of human action that establishes and transforms social relations. It is this focus on the meaning of religious symbols, and on the textual model as its representational frame of reference, that made Geertz's approach to ritual so attractive for scholars of religion. But recent approaches to ritual theory have called into question precisely this emphasis and questioned the equation of ritual with religion and language.

SHAKESPEARE’S DRAMA

“William Shakespeare's plays have the reputation of being among the greatest in the English language and in Western literature. Traditionally, the plays are divided into the genres of tragedy, history, and comedy; they have been translated into every major living language, in addition to being continually performed all around the world.”(Page 1, Pdf)

Many of his plays appeared in print as a series of quartos, but approximately half of them remained unpublished until 1623, when the posthumous First Folio was published. The traditional division of his plays into tragedies, comedies and histories follows the categories used in the First Folio. However, modern criticism has labelled some of these plays "problem plays" that elude easy categorisation, or perhaps purposely break generic conventions, and has introduced the term romances for what scholars believe to be his later comedies.

“When Shakespeare first arrived in London in the late 1580s or early 1590s, dramatists writing for London's new commercial playhouses (such as The Curtain) were combining two different strands of dramatic tradition into a new and distinctively Elizabethan synthesis. Previously, the most common forms of popular English theatre were the Tudor morality plays. These plays, celebrating piety generally, use personified moral attributes to urge or instruct the protagonist to choose the virtuous life over Evil. The characters and plot situations are largely symbolic rather than realistic. As a child, Shakespeare would likely have seen this type of play (along with, perhaps, mystery plays and miracle plays)”. (Page 25, Pdf)

“The other strand of dramatic tradition was classical aesthetic theory. This theory was derived ultimately from Aristotle; in Renaissance England, however, the theory was better known through its Roman interpreters and practitioners. At the universities, plays were staged in a more academic form as Roman closet dramas.” (Page 26, Pdf) These plays, usually performed in Latin, adhered to classical ideas of unity and decorum, but they were also more static, valuing lengthy speeches over physical action. Shakespeare would have learned this theory at grammar school, where Plautus and especially Terence were key parts of the curriculum and were taught in editions with lengthy theoretical introductions. Shakespeare reached maturity as a dramatist at the end of Elizabeth's reign, and in the first years of the reign of James. In these years, he responded to a deep shift in popular tastes, both in subject matter and approach. At the turn of the decade, he responded to the vogue for dramatic satire initiated by the boy players at Blackfriars and St. Paul's. At the end of the decade, he seems to have attempted to capitalise on the new fashion for tragicomedy, even collaborating with John Fletcher, the writer who had popularised the genre in England.

The influence of younger dramatists such as John Marston and Ben Jonson is seen not only in the problem plays, which dramatise intractable human problems of greed and lust, but also in the darker tone of the Jacobean tragedies. The Marlovian, heroic mode of the “Elizabethan tragedies is gone, replaced by a darker vision of heroic natures caught in environments of pervasive corruption. As a sharer in both the Globe and in the King's Men, Shakespeare never wrote for the boys' companies; however, his early Jacobean work is markedly influenced by the techniques of the new, satiric dramatists. One play, Troilus and Cressida, may even have been inspired by the War of the Theatres. “ (Page 34, Pdf)

Shakespeare's final plays hearken back to his Elizabethan comedies in their use of romantic situation and incident. In these plays, however, the sombre elements that are largely glossed over in the earlier plays are brought to the fore and often rendered dramatically vivid. This change is related to the success of tragicomedies such as Philaster, although the uncertainty of dates makes the nature and direction of the influence unclear. From the evidence of the title-page to The Two Noble Kinsmen and from textual analysis it is believed by some editors that Shakespeare ended his career in collaboration with Fletcher, who succeeded him as house playwright for the King's Men. These last plays resemble Fletcher's tragicomedies in their attempt to find a comedic mode capable of dramatising more serious events than had his earlier comedies. Elizabethan Drama, Drama in England started with the Medieval Church. Priests, wishing to make the Bible vivid to unlearned people, themselves performed very simple dramatic versions of stories from the Bible in their churches. These Miracle Plays, as they were called, became very elaborate and so popular that they had to be moved out of the church itself and were performed in the church porch and finally in the grounds surrounding the church. Eventually the plays lost their religious meaning and they were abandoned by the Church. They were taken over by the flourishing trade guilds, which came to regard good productions as a matter of civic pride. They changed their name to Mystery Plays and were performed on wagons in the streets of the towns. The Morality Play was another medieval dramatic form which had been popular. In these plays the characters were usually personified abstractions of vices and virtues competing for the possession of man's soul. The most famous were called "Everyman". They reflected the interest in symbolism and allegory of that time. The Morality Play formed a direct link between Medieval and Elizabethan Drama. Both in technical and literary aspects. They were designed for more educated audiences, Morality Plays were performed at schools and colleges and in the courtyards of inns, where the audience stood in front of the cart or all around in galleries which were part of the design of the inn-yard. (Page 1, Pdf)

CIVILIZATION

What is a Civilization?

“Without going through the variety of concepts and terminologies on the subject,  civilization simply means: the comprehensive development of the human potential in all its dimensions: physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral and psychological. To achieve this potential, civilizations strive to develop, utilize, and conserve the natural resources, the benefits of which should fairly reach the whole society, and bring about positive effects on the whole world. Given this definition, it is obvious that a civilization has certain requirements to deserve its name. After all, civilization is a collective effort by the whole society, and its benefits cannot be restricted to few individuals or be limited to certain groups. Civilization has to bear fruits to all members of society. Besides although civilization development may not affect all sides of society at the same level, it nonetheless, remains inclusive and comprehensive.” Civilization therefore has to maintain continuation and duration, and it cannot be considered as such if it just emerged to disappear. Another merit of civilization is that it has the potential of spreading to other societies, and that it can be adapted when it influences others. This civilization merit is being felt enormously in our times of amazingly speedy transportation of persons and goods, and communication of information everywhere in the world.

Civilization for the whole Humanity:

Muslim civilization was given the name “Muslim” only in later times by historians. In its time, it was appreciated by the contemporary world that knew it only as universal civilization, benefiting all mankind, though it flourished first among Muslim peoples. Civilization, whatever its origins, stages and classifications, is a whole phenomenon, a continuation of human development whatever its different places and times may be. As it has been previously emphasized, Muslim civilization in the past was developed and enjoyed by Muslims and non-Muslims, Arabs and non-Arabs, and by people of Muslim lands and people of non-Muslim lands. Muslims had benefited from the contributions of previous as well as contemporary civilizations such as the Graeco-Roman-Byzantines, Persian and Indian civilizations. However, Muslims developed those heritages and left their fingerprints in their outcomes. Muslims followed an empirical attitude in science, leaving a Greek theoretical speculative one, and showed interest in all aspects of applied sciences (e.g. observatories, surgical instruments, pharmaceutics, hospital and library services, cartography, etc), while an attitude towards abstraction was obvious in their aesthetics. More important, they developed a system of care for neighbors and neighborhood and local community welfare. These and other traits characterized the universal civilization that developed in Muslim lands in past centuries. The civilizational effects of Islam and Muslims are true evidence of the significance and value of the message of Islam. Not all the people are interested in going through the faith of Islam and reading its teachings in order to understand the religion, although this may be essential on the part of anyone who feels that his/her intellectual and moral responsibility of knowledge and judgment require doing so. But all people can easily appreciate the common good and human perspective of Islam and come to think about the factors behind them. In other words, the civilizational achievements of Islam andMuslims have been a permanent evidence of the value of the message of Islam. Muslim civilization in medieval times was not only known for its libraries, laboratories, observatories and hospitals, but also for its gardens and fountains, refined textiles and beautifully designed clothes and rugs, perfumes, fragrant incense, decorated glass and pottery and metal products manufactured by Muslims and non-Muslims in Muslim lands. Hard work and perfection are taught by Islam to make the individual achieve the acceptance and reward of God in this life and in the eternal life to come. It is also required for good business to earn one’s living in this present life, and it may be supported morally and spiritually by believers other than Muslims as well. Besides, Muslims, as all human beings, in addition to being inspired by the guidance of their book.

EUROPEAN

Economists and statesmen in other European nations were also suggesting the possibility that an integrated Europe could have both economic and political advantages. For example, Jean Monnet of France believed that a union of European nations could better compete against countries with a larger pool of resources, such as the United States. Likewise, French foreign minister Robert Schuman believed that the European producers of coal, such as France and West Germany, could integrate their coal and steel industries. On the one hand, as Monnet had suggested, this integration could give those countries more economic clout in the world markets. On the other hand, it would enable France and other European nations to keep a watchful eye on West Germany’s quickly reviving economy. As West Germany was beginning its “economic wonder”, and recovering admirably from the devastation of World War II, the other European countries wanted to monitor it closely to be sure they weren’t using their coal and steel industries to rebuild a powerful military. As a result, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed in 1951 and became effective the next year. The ECSC integrated the production and trade of the iron, coal and steel in Belgium, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, France, West Germany and Italy. Thus, in 1952, six European countries began the path toward a unified Europe.In the 1990’s, negotiations and legislation continued to create the framework for the new European Union (EU). In 1990, the Schengen Agreement was signed, making it possible for people to easily travel throughout the member countries without having to show passports at border crossings. Most significantly, in 1993, the Maastricht European Council adopted the Treaty on European Union, which defined the EU as it is known today. This treaty, also known as the Maastricht Treaty, called for the EU nations to use a single currency by 1999. The new currency is called the euro (€), and there are strict qualifications regarding economic stability that must be fulfilled by the EU nations that use it. The Maastricht Treaty also gave the EU more authority over such issues as security, the environment, education, health, and consumer protection. The decade of the 1990’s also brought three more nations into the EU: Austria, Finland and Swedenjoined in 1995. Finally, in 1999, the Amsterdam Treaty was signed and put into force, giving the EU even more power and responsibility regarding its citizens. By the end ofthe 20th century, the EU had become a powerful political and economic body consisting of 15 European nations.